- Research article
- Open Access
Comparative genomics reveals Lysinibacillus sphaericus group comprises a novel species
- Camilo Gómez-Garzón1,
- Alejandra Hernández-Santana1 and
- Jenny Dussán1Email author
- Received: 11 June 2016
- Accepted: 27 August 2016
- Published: 5 September 2016
Abstract
Background
Early in the 1990s, it was recognized that Lysinibacillus sphaericus, one of the most popular and effective entomopathogenic bacteria, was a highly heterogeneous group. Many authors have even proposed it comprises more than one species, but the lack of phenotypic traits that guarantee an accurate differentiation has not allowed this issue to be clarified. Now that genomic technologies are rapidly advancing, it is possible to address the problem from a whole genome perspective, getting insights into the phylogeny, evolutive history and biology itself.
Results
The genome of the Colombian strain L. sphaericus OT4b.49 was sequenced, assembled and annotated, obtaining 3 chromosomal contigs and no evidence of plasmids. Using these sequences and the 13 other L. sphaericus genomes available on the NCBI database, we carried out comparative genomic analyses that included whole genome alignments, searching for mobile elements, phylogenomic metrics (TETRA, ANI and in-silico DDH) and pan-genome assessments. The results support the hypothesis about this species as a very heterogeneous group. The entomopathogenic lineage is actually a single and independent species with 3728 core genes and 2153 accessory genes, whereas each non-toxic strain seems to be a separate species, though without a clear circumscription. Toxin-encoding genes, binA, B and mtx1, 2, 3 could be acquired via horizontal gene transfer in a single evolutionary event. The non-toxic strain OT4b.31 is the most related with the type strain KCTC 3346.
Conclusions
The current L. sphaericus is actually a sensu lato due to a sub-estimation of diversity accrued using traditional non-genomics based classification strategies. The toxic lineage is the most studied with regards to its larvicidal activity, which is a greatly conserved trait among these strains and thus, their differentiating feature. Further studies are needed in order to establish a univocal classification of the non-toxic strains that, according to our results, seem to be a paraphyletic group.
Keywords
- Lysinibacillus sphaericus
- Pan-genome
- Core-genome
- Phylogeny
- Larvicidal
Background
Since the discovery of entomopathogenic activity in Bacillus thuringiensis in the 1960s, many bacteria with insecticidal activity have been described. Isolates of B. thuringiensis and Lysinibacillus sphaericus are frequently reported [1]. The latter is more active against Culex and Anopheles spp. and more persistent in polluted aquatic environments than B. thuringiensis var. israelensis [2, 3]. Lysinibacillus sphaericus is a gram-positive and spore-forming bacteria isolated for the first time from fourth-instar larvae of Culiseta incidens near Fresno, California [4]. However, this strain displayed a low level of toxicity [5] and it was not until the 1970s that the first strains with potential use as mosquito-control agents were discovered [6].
In spite of being widely used in biological control programs, not all strains of L. sphaericus are toxic against mosquitoes. Nowadays, it is well known that a plethora of insecticidal toxins are responsible for the entomopathogenic activity of the toxic strains. Binary prototoxin (Bin) is the major insecticidal protein produced by L. sphaericus; it is contained inside the parasporal crystal and comprises two proteins: BinA (42 kDa) and BinB (51 kDa). After being ingested by larva, these proteins are solubilized in the gut and undergo proteolysis to active lower molecular weight derivatives [2, 7, 8]. Other crystal proteins, Cry48 and Cry49, might be produced on sporulation by some toxic strains. These toxins are related to Cry toxins of B. thuringiensis and Bin family toxins, respectively [1]. L. sphaericus may also produce insecticidal toxins during vegetative stage; this is the case of Mtx proteins [9, 10] whose mode of action remains to be elucidated.
Formerly known as Bacillus sphaericus, L. sphaericus is characterized by having a spherical terminal spore and by its inability to utilize carbohydrates, except N-acetylglucosamine [11]. Instead, it uses organic and amino acids as carbon sources [5]. This species may be found in soil and aquatic environments and, recently, has gained attention because it has shown outstanding potential for environmental and industrial applications beyond biological control, especially in bioremediation of toxic metals [12–14], phosphorous solubilization [15], among others [16].
In 2007, this species was reclassified to a new genus according to phenotypic traits, mainly based on differences in peptidoglycan composition which includes lysine and aspartic acid instead of meso-diaminopimelic acid, the major component of Bacillus cell wall [17]. No genomic support to assess this classification was reported until a few years ago, when Hu and coworkers investigated the phylogenetic relationship between four toxic and three non-toxic strains. Their findings suggested a new species for insecticidal strains and provided evidence for toxicity evolution by means of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) [18]. However, a more comprehensive analysis is required as the number of available genome sequences has doubled. Therefore, we aimed to perform a broader evaluation of the intraspecific genetic diversity of L. sphaericus as species and as mosquito-control agent.
Results
A new L. sphaericus genome is now available
L. sphaericus genomes used in this study
Strain | Toxicitya | Level | Genome size (bp) | Contigs | Accession no. | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C3-41 | High | Complete | 4,639,821 | 2b | CP000817 | [48] |
2362 | High | Complete | 4,692,801 | 1 | CP015224 | [49] |
III(3)7 | High | Complete | 4,663,526 | 2b | CP014856 | [14] |
OT4b.25 | High | Complete | 4.665,575 | 2b | CP014643 | [50] |
OT4b.49 | High | Draft | 4,668,840 | 3 | LWHI01000000 | This study |
CBAM5 | High | Draft | 5,156,460 | 93 | AYKQ00000000 | [13] |
LP1-G | High | Draft | 4,542,839 | 143b | JPDL01000000 | |
2297 | Medium | Draft | 4,516,760 | 278 | JPDJ01000000 | [18] |
SSII-1 | Low | Draft | 4,651,985 | 138 | JPDK01000000 | [18] |
1987 | Non-toxic | Draft | 4,906,630 | 70 | JMMU01000000 | Not published |
OT4b.31 | Non-toxic | Draft | 4,856,302 | 94 | AQPX00000000 | [52] |
B1-CDA | Non-toxic | Draft | 4,509,276 | 84 | LJYY01000000 | [12] |
KCTC 3346 | Non-toxic | Draft | 4,560,870 | 83 | AUOZ00000000 | [53] |
NRS 1693 | Non-toxic | Draft | 4,603,690 | 546 | JPDM01000000 | [18] |
16S rDNA homology cannot differentiate toxic from non-toxic isolates
Phylogenetic tree of round-spored bacilli showing the current 16S rDNA-based taxonomy. L. sphaericus strains can be found in three out of the six highlighted homology groups. All the toxic strains are clustered in the group in purple, however, not all the strains in that group are toxic. Bootstrap values for 500 replicates are shown in the branches
Toxic strains comprise a nearly clonal and independent lineage with a high degree of synteny
Whole genome alignments between toxic and non-toxic strains. a Dot-plots of nucleotide identities of the toxic strains OT4b.49 against 2362 (left) and OT4b.49 against the non-toxic strain OT4b.31 (right). b Nucleotide-based alignment of the genomes from two toxic (OT4b.49 and 2362) and two non-toxic (OT4b.31 and B1-CDA) strains. Homologous blocks are shown as identically colored regions and linked across the genomes. Regions that are inverted relative to L. sphaericus 2362 are shown below the central axis of each sequence
Circular map that compares genomes of L. sphaericus OT4b.49, CBAM5, OT4b.31, and B1-CDA against 2362. Each circle represents the genome from one strain, and the colored blocks in it represent sequences with >90 % identity relative to L. sphaericus 2362. The GIs in the immediacy of encoding toxin genes as well as the origin of replication are spotted. GC skew is shown in the inner circle
HGT might have played a role in toxicity acquisition
Eleven Genomic Islands (GIs) were detected for the strain OT4b.49. As reported by Hu and coworkers, the identified GIs comprise sequences of mobile genetic elements as prophages and transposons, and several recombination-involved proteins as integrase, recombinase, and transposase [18]. Interestingly, mosquitocidal toxin coding genes are within or in the immediacy of those GIs (Fig. 3). All of the completed genomes from toxic strains were evaluated for GIs and, as it was previously hypothesized, all of them have between 7 and 11 GIs associated with the toxin genes. This suggests a role for these mobile large segments of DNA in the acquisition of entomopathogenic activity.
The toxic lineage appears to represent a novel species
Heatmaps representing metrics for the evaluation of species circumscription among L. sphaericus strains. The extent of nucleotide identity was calculated according to different indices for species circumscription: TETRA, ANIb and DDH as illustrated. The key color is shown for each figure
Furthermore, to gain a deeper insight on this matter, we aimed to reveal distinctive traits of toxic and non-toxic strain by identifying, evaluating, and comparing clusters of orthologous genes (COGs) from protein sequences comparisons. In concordance with results mentioned above, little functional diversity was found in 4 representatives of toxic lineage since no unique genes were detected for any strain (Additional file 1: Figure S1). However, when the same evaluation was carried out with two toxic and two non-toxic strains, a greater heterogeneity was observed, with the toxic strains being the ones which shared the highest amount of COGs (Additional file 1: Figure S1). The core and accessory genes of L. sphaericus as well as core and accessory genes of toxic lineage were identified by following Roary pipeline [27]. Three thousand seven hundred and twenty eight core genes (defined as genes in more than 95 % of evaluated strains) were found in toxic lineage as well as a pan-genome pool containing 5881 genes. In sharp contrast, only 391 genes constituted the core-genome and 20,217 genes constituted the pan-genome when both toxic and non-toxic strains were evaluated.
Core and accessory genes of L. sphaericus genomes. The upper panel shows both contigs and annotated genes which are inferred from pan-genome content and might not represent the genome order. Genes are represented and mapped as blue blocks. Genes shared by two or more sequences are mapped in the same position. The phylogenetic tree on the left panel was constructed by FastTree 2.0 based on the core genes alignment obtained from Roary
Pan- and core-genome of L. sphaericus. The curves depict the pan and core-genome, for toxic strains and for the complete set of analyzed strains, both as function of the number of genomes
Discussion
It is commonly recognized that a few sequenced genomes may misrepresent the entire genetic repertoire of a species [29, 30]. That is why the current availability of 14 L. sphaericus genomes has made this traditionally controversial group an excellent candidate for phylogenomics and pan-genomic studies that clarify the species boundaries for this taxon. In this work, we carried out a comprehensive analysis of L. sphaericus as a species and mosquito-control agent, obtaining results that suggest the need of a new species designation.
The results showed a high diversity within L. sphaericus, with entomopathogenicity being the main feature that allows a clear distinction among the strains. This supports previous studies whereby a reevaluation of L. sphaericus as a species was suggested. By convention, round-spored mesophilic bacilli that grow at neutral pH and are unable to ferment carbohydrates have been classified as L. sphaericus sensu lato [20]. As unique phenotypic traits are discovered, novel species have been designated from this group, this is the case for L. fusiformis, L. boronitolerans, and Sporosarcina globispora, among others [19]. As Nakamura states, the dependence of early studies on insensitive methods hindered estimation of diversity and fostered the creation of heterogeneous species that includes toxic and non-toxic strains [19]. Hence, variability in toxicity might arise from genetic variability and incorrect classification.
We found evidence that suggests the toxicity could have been acquired by a HGT event because toxin genes were found flanked by genomic islands containing several integrase, recombinase, and transposase sequences. However, we are still not able to clarify from what kind of gene transfer event the mosquitocidal activity arose.
It is very intriguing that all toxic strains shape a nearly clonal group in spite of their very different provenance: strains 2362, C3-41 and OT4b.49 were respectively isolated from Africa, Asia and South America. Therefore, we hypothesize that toxins acquisition lead to the emergence of the toxic lineage by providing a fitness increase and thus, a great genomic stabilization.
Since the toxic lineage are made up by nearly clonal strains, the sole presence of binA or binB (which are always together) and mtx2 (or cry) toxin-encoding genes is a good indicator of the feasibility for using a round-spored bacilli as mosquito-control agent. This could be easily assessed, for instance, by a PCR assay. In addition, these genes also would indicate the presence of other interesting core genes from this lineage, such as those that encode for S-layer protein and metal efflux pumps [14, 31].
Herein, we compared 14 L. sphaericus genomes with one another by using ANIb, TETRA, and digital DDH, in order to achieve a clearer species circumscription [25, 26, 32]. The results certainly showed the toxic lineage of L. sphaericus as a single and independent species (Fig. 4 and Additional file 3: Table S1). A further evaluation of remaining members of the L. sphaericus species is required due to values outside the intra-species range (<96 % and <0.999 for ANI and TETRA, respectively, and <70 % for DDH) in some non-toxic strains.
An alternative and novel way to describe a bacterial species is by its pan-genome, which is the sum of the core (genes present in all strains), dispensable (genes present in two or more strains), and unique (genes present in single strains) genomes [30]. As Tettelin and coworkers proposed, by defining the pan-genome of a bacterium, insights both on its biology and life style can be gained as well as implications for the definitions of the species itself [33]. Our comparative analysis of 14 L. sphaericus genomes indicated a pan-genome with frequent rearrangements, revealing the striking genomic heterogeneity inside this group. When performing the same comparative analysis on the 8 entomopathogenic strains, an open but smaller pan-genome as well as highly syntenic regions and less frequent genomic rearrangements were found (Fig. 6).
Finally, it is important to take into account that frequent gaps and sequencing errors might cause underestimation in genome annotation and therefore, errors in the estimation of the core- and pan-genome [34]. Only 4 of the 14 genomes analyzed are completed as a single chromosomal contig, which constitutes an inherent limitation of this study and highlights the importance of technologies that make closed genomes possible.
Conclusions
We generated a draft genome for the Colombian mosquitocidal L. sphaericus OT4b.49 and carried out an analysis of the full repertoire of L. sphaericus available genomes in order to assess intraspecific diversity.
The current study provides strong evidence for considering the toxic-lineage of L. sphaericus as a new species. Historically, many round-spored mesophilic bacilli have been grouped under L. sphaericus classification, leading to the formation of a heterogeneous sensu lato. We assessed taxonomic composition by means of overall genome relatedness indices and phylogenomic analysis based on core genes. We found that toxic strains form a well-defined lineage that should be considered as a novel species. The differentiating feature of this species is the presence of toxin-encoding genes such as binA, B and mtx1, 2, 3, which might be acquired by HGT.
On the other hand, the remaining L. sphaericus strains did not show a clear circumscription and are, indeed, a paraphyletic group. Further studies are needed in order to establish a univocal classification, though this is still challenging in the light of the absence of an unambiguous species definition for bacteria.
Methods
Genome sequencing and assembly
The genome sequencing of L. sphaericus OT4b.49 was carried out using Pacific Biosciences technology with 1 SMRT cell, P4-C2 chemistry, and a mixed library (CCS and subreads). This service was provided by McGill University and Génome Québec Innovation Centre. Contig assembly was done using the HGAP 2.0 workflow [35]. Sequencing errors were corrected by aligning multiple short reads on longer reads. Subsequently, the corrected reads were used as seeds into Celera Assembler [36] to obtain contigs. These contigs were polished through an alignment of raw reads on contigs by BLASR [37] and then, high quality consensus sequences were generated from these contigs by a variant calling algorithm (Quiver).
Genome annotation
The genome of L. sphaericus OT4b.49 was annotated using the NCBI Prokaryotic Genome Annotation Pipeline [38] and RAST [39]. In addition, the 14 genomes used in this study (Table 1) were re-annotated by Prokka [40], which locates ORFs by Prodigal and RNA regions using RNAmmer, Aragorn, SignalP and Infernal. Then, it annotates the translated sequences by a homology searching with BLAST and HMMER, followed by a searching against public databases (CDD, PFAM, and TIGRFAM) and the Prokka “Kingdom Bacteria” database.
16S rDNA phylogeny
The 16S rDNA sequences obtained with Prokka, together with the 16S rDNA sequences from other bacilli listed below, were aligned using MEGA 6.0 [41] with the MUSCLE algorithm. The phylogenetic tree was then constructed by the neighbor-joining method and the distances, computed with the Kimura’s two-parameter model [42] using only positions with >95 % coverage. Bootstrap tests were carried out with 500 replicates. The additional 16S rDNA sequences were: Bacillus subtilis 168T (X60646), Bacillus licheniformis DSM 13T (X68416), Bacillus megaterium IAM 13418T (D16273), Bacillus sp. BD-87 (AF169520), Bacillus sp. BD-99 (AF169525), Bacillus sp. NRS-1691 (AF169531), Bacillus sp. NRS-1693 (AF169533), Solibacillus silvestris StLB046 (NR_074954), Bacillus sp. NRS-250 (AF169536), Bacillus sp. B-1876 (AF169494), Bacillus sp. NRS-1198 (AF169528), Bacillus sp. B-4297 (AF169507), Bacillus sp. NRS-111 (AF169526), Bacillus sp. B-183 (AF169493), Lysinibacillus sphaericus B-23268T (AF169495), Lysinibacillus sphaericus JG-A12 (AM292655), Bacillus sp. B-14905 (AF169491), Lysinibacillus sphaericus ZC1 (NZ_ADJR01000054.1:1-1487), Bacillus sp. B-14865 (AF169490), Lysinibacillus fusiformis ATCC-7055 (AJ310083), Bacillus sp. B-14957 (AF169492) and Bacillus sp. B-23269 (AF169496).
Genome comparison
MAUVE software [23] was used in order to perform whole genome alignments and synteny comparisons. Genomes were also compared with BRIG [24] and the genomic islands and toxin-encoding genes, previously predicted, were mapped in this comparison. Dot plots were generated by Gepard [22] using the ordered contigs produced by MAUVE for each genome.
Identification of genomic islands
Genomic islands were predicted in the complete genomes of toxic L. sphaericus strains using Island Viewer 3 [43]. This tool integrates the IslandPick, IslandPath.DIMOB and SIGI-HMM algorithms.
Average nucleotide identity, correlation indexes, and DDH estimates
The values for ANIb, ANIm and Tetra were calculated by JSpecies [32] for all the possible strain pairs among L. sphaericus genomes. DDH estimates were obtained from Genome to Genome Distance Calculator 2.1, which transforms the distances from the high-scoring segment pairs to values analogous to DDH using a generalized linear model. This model is inferred from an empirical reference dataset comprising real DDH values and genome sequences [26]. All of the results above were represented as heatmaps using R statistical software [44].
Pan- and core-genome analysis
The pan- and core-genomes for all strains of L. sphaericus as well as for the toxic and non-toxic strains were obtained using OrthoMCL [45] and Roary (with codon aware alignment) [27]. Roary uses FastTree 2.0 algorithm to infer an approximately-maximum-likelihood tree from large alignments by the Jukes-Cantor model for nucleotide evolution [27]. The results from Roary were visualized by Phandango [46] as a phylogenetic tree of core genes and by R statistical package as graphs of number of genes vs number of genomes. Orthologous gene clusters were identified and visualized by OrthoVenn which follows a similar pipeline to OrthoMCL [47].
Declarations
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Alejandro Reyes Muñoz for his helpful discussions and guidance during this work.
Additionally, we thank Tito David Peña-Montenegro and Elizabeth Dell Trippe (University of Georgia) for their kind reviewing of the manuscript and their invaluable suggestions.
Funding
This project was supported by Faculty of Sciences of Universidad de los Andes. The funding entity played no part in the design of the study, collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data or in writing the manuscript.
Availability of data and materials
The genome sequences used in the current study are available on the NCBI Genome Database under the accession numbers listed in Table 1.
Authors’ contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: JD. Performed the experiments: CGG and AHS. Analyzed the data: CGG and AHS. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools and acquired funding: JD. Wrote the paper: CGG, AHS and JD. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Authors’ Affiliations
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